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Regarding the art program, most of the images in this edition are now in color, approximately one-third of the images from the second edition have been replaced, and there are now several ink drawings created for this book. The book has fewer tables than the second edition but more boxes. Each of the eleven chapters now has two boxes. New sections in this edition include discussions of decolonization in archaeology, digital archaeology, public archaeology, and interpreting the past in the future, which speculates on how archaeologists and others will understand life in the early twenty- first century. Sections on activist archaeology and archaeology of contemporary times have been expanded.
Significant revisions have been made to the section on the current state of archaeology, and the Glossary has been expanded. Minor revisions and updates have been made throughout each chapter, which are reflected in the substantial changes in the bibliography which now has a much higher proportion of references by women and Indigenous scholars than previous editions. Further, this third edition addresses some of the more problematic current issues such as sexual harassment and abuse, lack of diversity in the profession, and inclusion. The purpose of this prologue is to let students know that archaeology is not what it may seem. For non-archaeologists, perceptions of what archaeology is, who archaeologists are, and how they do their work are based primarily on unrealistic stereotypes perpetuated by media and popular culture. Stories in mainstream media suggesting that archaeologists have discovered something lost, mysterious, or with enormous monetary value appear almost daily.
Media also often confuses archaeology with other subjects, such as geology when discussing the discovery of ancient landforms and paleontology when discussing dinosaurs. Most stories about archaeology in media are sensationalized. There are thousands of archaeology projects going on around the world on any given day, and although they may not appear newsworthy, they are important. Choosing which archaeology discoveries make it to the news is very biased, dependent upon the interests of journalists and editors, and what they believe the public will be interested in. Media tends to sensationalize some archaeology news stories and ignore others. Projects that support Indigenous claims to territories and resources, for example, rarely make national or international news, while stories about Viking hoards, shipwrecks laden with gold, and lovers entangled in death usually do.
It has become almost routine, for example, to learn of discoveries of hoards of coins and other items buried by ancient Romans or Vikings. These stories often focus on the monetary value of the finds, rather than their value to understanding the human past. They also often tend to overlook when the finds were discovered by amateurs searching for treasure with the use of metal detectors, in no way following the proper methods and ethics of archaeology. Discoveries of shipwrecks laden with gold and other treasures are becoming increasingly common, as there have been significant advances in technology to find wrecks on the ocean floor and retrieve artifacts from them.
What is often left out of the stories, however, is that the discovery and retrieval of the treasure is usually made by actors often large corporations with only a commercial interest in the finds, such as selling the treasure. There are real archaeologists who undertake pure research on underwater wrecks, but most of discoveries of shipwrecks are not made by these archaeologists. The discovery and retrieval of items from the Titanic, for example, has provided little in the way of a benefit to archaeology, other than perhaps adding to the technology of underwater archaeology, while bringing some measure of closure to the descendants of those who drowned.
The exploration of the Titanic was far more about a commercial venture, such as charging to see the items and associated documentaries, than about contributing to archaeology. Stories about archaeology often involve the discovery and analysis of human skeletons and mummies. While these are often interesting and significant, it would be incorrect to believe that most archaeologists are focused on finding and analyzing human biological remains. Most archaeologists, in fact, will stop excavations if they find them. Some governments have put into place strict regulations regarding the protection and study of human remains. Many archaeologists go through their entire careers without coming across a skeleton or mummy, and they are more than fine with that. Stories about people being buried together, sometimes referred to as lovers entangled in death, are almost always sensationalized.
In recent years, in keeping with current interests, the stories about people being buried together have often focused on the sexual orientation of the individuals. Finding artifacts is part of the early process of an archaeological research project; it is simply part of the data collection. It is what archaeologists learn from the artifacts and their contexts that is important. Yet another misconception perpetuated by popular culture and media is that people have only gotten smart recently. This is not true. People have been smart for a very long time. The notion that without intervention by extraterrestrial aliens people could not have built the Egyptian pyramids or Stonehenge, for example, is preposterous. Archaeologists may debate what specific technology was used, but the notion that people were not smart enough is ridiculous. Other popular misconceptions of archaeology are that it is academic in nature, male-dominated, and comprised primarily of excavation.
The reality is that most archaeology is not purely academic, with most professionals making their careers outside of university settings. There are approximately as many females as males working as professionals in archaeology. Most archaeologists spend relatively little time doing fieldwork, and for those that do, much more time is typically spent looking for sites than excavating them. This following chapters are meant to provide some insight into the world of archaeology — what archaeology really is, how it is really done, what the human past was like, and why archaeology is important. This textbook is a gateway to learning about the human past by examining the things people left behind. Real archaeology offers a different perspective than the one often portrayed in popular culture in regard to many things, including the story of the human past. It is different from most popular culture versions of how archaeology is done and what it reveals about the human past, but the stories it reveals are no less fantastic.
It is part of the multibillion-dollar heritage industry; taught as a scholarly discipline in colleges and universities throughout the world; and firmly embedded in politics, global social movements, and popular culture. It has been defined in dozens of ways and is commonly referred to as a scholarly or intellectual endeavor, a profession, a practice, a craft, and a hobby. It is rationalized in many different ways and relies on several basic concepts. This chapter introduces archaeology by clarifying these definitions, contexts, ration alizations, and concepts. The Allure of Archaeology Many, probably most, people are influenced in their understanding of archaeology by media reports about significant discoveries or through popular culture.
There is no consensus on why so many people are drawn to archaeology, but there is no doubt the allure is widespread. Evidently, people are drawn for multiple reasons. The general public is often influenced by popular culture, insofar as archaeologists are often presented as heroes, full of adventure, making important discoveries, and preventing evildoers from stealing or destroying important things. There is also the view problematic as it is that archaeology is a noble activity and serves the greater good, which may be attractive to some. Although not stated explicitly, archaeologists are often portrayed in media, including popular magazines and documentaries such as those produced by National Geographic, as being white saviors, with archaeologists from Western countries often presented as saving the tangible heritage of peoples around the world, mostly in developing countries but also including the Indigenous populations of the United States and Canada.
The savior complex is problematic for multiple reasons, including disagreements about who are the rightful stewards of the archaeological record. The allure of archaeology may also be fueled by what some have termed paleofantasy, including a belief that things were better in the past. This is perhaps best illustrated in the popularity of the paleodiet, whose basic assumptions, as discussed in Box 8. For college and university students, the allure may derive from what they think archaeology is, based on popular culture; or, as may more often be the case, they enroll in an introductory course because it fits their timetable, they know someone else taking it, or it simply sounds interesting. Those making a career in archaeology may initially be drawn to it through popular culture, but they often get hooked in college or university, especially if they have the opportunity to participate in field research. For some professional archaeologists it is the lifestyle that appeals to them most, letting them spend significant amount of time outdoors or in a college or university classroom.
For many it is the interesting mix of the natural sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities that is the draw. Others like the detective work or puzzle-solving nature of archaeology. There are some who are drawn for economic reasons, insofar as one can make a decent living doing archaeology. Others may be drawn primarily for the social contexts, as during fieldwork and laboratory work archaeologists rarely work alone. The allure for some may lie in the activist aspect of archaeology, such as promoting social justice or the empowerment of marginalized groups. As described elsewhere in this chapter, archaeology is associated with multiple social movements, and for some this may be the driving force for entering the profession.
Increasing numbers of Indigenous Peoples, for example, are turning toward archaeology as a career to further empower Indigenous nations. More examples of activist archaeology are provided in Chapter Many people and institutions place high value on archaeology because they too understand the allure — there are reasons why governments around the world support research and protect archaeological sites and artifacts. Besides empowering people and movements, archaeologists can help explain current events, help solve conflicts and assess claims, and assist in solving other problems of living in the twenty-first century, such as dealing with nuclear waste and ever-increasing accumulations of trash. Archaeology is just one area that focuses on the human past.
Many people and disciplines — history, for example — are interested in the past. Thus for those who are interested in the past, but also like to work with their hands and deal with physical places and objects that can be seen, touched, measured, illustrated, and studied in other ways, archaeology is a good fit. For many, it is this tangible aspect of archaeology that is the draw. The allure of archaeology may further be fuelled by what images of ancient sites evoke. Comprising the Parthenon and surrounding buildings, the Acropolis is among the most famous archaeological sites in the world, and for many it symbolizes Western civilization and the beginnings of archaeology, which as outlined in Chapter 2 is rooted in the collection of antiquities from ancient Greece and Rome. Located high in the Andes Mountains of Peru, the Inka site of Machu Picchu was abandoned in the early s. Its principal function was likely as a retreat for a ruling Inka family, and it has become a national symbol for Peru.
Besides having architectural ruins in fabulous settings and becoming national symbols, the Acropolis and Machu Picchu, along with many other archaeological sites, accommodate hundreds of thousands of visitors each year making them part of the archaeotourism industry, which in itself may be one of the principal gateways to an interest in archaeology. FIGURE 1. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, for many the Acropolis symbolizes Western civilization, the beginning of archaeology, the political nature of archaeology, Greek identity, and archaeotourism. PHOTO: Gillian Crowther. Located high in the Andes Mountains, Machu Picchu was probably a retreat for a ruling Inka family. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a symbol of Peruvian identity, and one of the most popular archaeotourism destinations in South America. PHOTO: Barry D. Kass ImagesofAnthropology. The Lens of Archaeology Archaeology may be considered a lens to view the human past.
The lens is a framework to guide our interest. Frameworks are important to guide us, helping organize our thoughts and actions. Many frameworks exist for studying and understanding the past. Those interested in ancient landforms follow the framework of geology; those whose primary interest is in dinosaurs study through a lens of paleontology. Of those more focused on the human past, some view the human past through one of thousands of lenses of religion. Others, especially those who like the primacy of the written record, often use the framework of history. Those who prefer explanations involving aliens and supernatural phenomena are often following a framework of pseudoarchaeology. The lens of archaeology is defined as viewing humans through a set of archaeological principles, methods, theories, ethics, and research results.
These are covered in subsequent chapters in this book. They differ from other frameworks or lenses. There is often overlap with other ways of knowing, but it is the suite of characteristics methods, theories, etc. that distinguish the lens of archaeology. Having a framework for understanding the human narrative is important. Archaeology is a way of knowing. But there are other levels as well. Chapter 2 introduces several more narrow lenses operating within archaeology e. One of the first and most important things a student of archaeology should learn is that there is no consensus definition of archaeology. Indeed, there are almost as many definitions of archaeology as there are books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and websites that focus on the subject. Some definitions restrict archaeology to the study of the human past, while others include the present as well as the past as the periods of interest.
Some definitions focus on the objects of interest, such as the study of artifacts or the study of ancient civilizations, yet most do not restrict archaeology to any particular subset of the material remains of human physical activity. Some definitions focus on the objectives of archaeology, such as describing the human past or explaining past events, while others make no mention whatsoever of the research goals. While differences in definitions may lead to some initial confusion for those unfamiliar with archaeology, these differences do provide some indication of the breadth of the discipline.
Also, even a cursory examination of the plethora of definitions shows that there are two constants in almost all of them. First, archaeology is focused on humans. Second, the essential database of archaeology is the remains of their physical activities, often referred to as material remains. Considering these two constants, a good all-purpose definition of the discipline is this: archaeology is the study of humans through their material remains. This includes the identification, collection, analysis, interpretation, and management of those remains. This definition does not restrict archaeology to a specific time period, a particular subset of material remains, or the use of the scientific method.
To more completely understand the definition, it is necessary to know in greater detail what archaeologists mean by the words human and material remains. There is no universal agreement about what it means to be human. Almost all archaeologists allow that at a minimum, human is taken to mean all members of the genus Homo. As outlined more fully in Chapter 7, the genus appears to have arisen about 2. Many archaeologists are less restrictive and equate human with the biological family Homininae. This family includes multiple genera, including Homo, and appears to have arisen between about 7 and 5 million years ago. No undisputed evidence of material remains have been found for any genus other than Homo, so for many archaeologists, whether one equates human with Homo or Homininae is not all that important.
Material remains comprise all kinds of physical evidence of human activities, including, but certainly not restricted to, tools, houses, things buried deliberately or lost, refuse, and modifications to the landscape. The variety of material remains is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4. A Scholarly Endeavor, a Profession, and a Craft Archaeology is at once a scholarly endeavor and a profession. There is no question of the scholarly nature of archaeology. It is embedded in colleges and universities throughout the world; it is funded by major research agencies; it makes extensive use of theory at all stages of research; and it produces scholarly, peer-reviewed publications.
There is also no question that archaeology is a profession. Many archaeologists, especially those serving clients in the heritage industry, are more likely to consider their work a business rather than a scholarly pursuit. Professions are generally considered to require specialized knowledge, provide a service to the community, and have a high degree of autonomy, a system of licensing or a registry of qualified members, and self-organized associations. While there are no formal national systems of licensing for archaeologists in North America, registries exist at local, regional, and international levels. These registries typically have codes of ethics and minimum standards of qualification, including postgraduate university degrees and considerable experience in field archaeology.
Although in a clear minority, some archaeologists consider archaeology to be more a craft than either a scholarly endeavor or a profession. For example, some proponents of this view compare archaeology to the craft of pottery, suggesting that, like making a pot, archaeology involves both abstract thought and physical labor; thereby they avoid a distinct separation of reasoning and execution, and unify theory and practice. Unlike other academic disciplines that are associated with well-defined subject matter, the essential craft of archaeology is in manufacturing knowledge and interpreting the past. Archaeology versus Archeology The variety of spellings of the word archaeology confuses many people. There are two common spellings in the English language: archaeology and archeology. Most archaeologists use the longer spelling, with the second a after the h, while much of the popular press, some professional organizations, and some governments prefer the shorter version.
One is more inclined to see the shorter spelling in the United States than elsewhere in the world, but both spellings are considered valid. Archaeology in the early twenty-first century is multi- faceted, with interests and applications ranging from pure research in academic contexts to involvement with industry, politics, social movements, popular culture, tourism, and more. IMAGE: Katherine Cook. Archaeology can be considered in many contexts, falling into the principal categories of academia, business, politics, global social movements, and popular culture. These categories should not be considered mutually exclusive, and any single project can be considered in multiple contexts. It is not uncommon for ongoing projects to be both scholarly and political; and research from purely academic projects is often used to further global social movements long after the fieldwork and analysis has been completed.
Archaeology is an academic discipline that falls within the Western intellectual tradition, with courses taught and research undertaken in academic settings. Within these academic settings, however, the place of archaeology varies. Archaeology is situated in three basic models, both intellectually and administratively in colleges and universities. Archaeology as a branch of anthropology is one model; another is that of archaeology as a stand-alone department; and in the third model, archaeology is recognized as neither a department nor a branch, but rather as specialized courses situated within any of several departments.
Archaeology as a branch of anthropology is the most prevalent model in North America. With the other branches, archaeology shares evolutionary, holistic, and comparative perspectives of humankind, and depends on fieldwork for the acquisition of data. An overview of each of the major branches is summarized in Table 1. Anthropology may be a distinct department in colleges or universities, or it may be associated with geography, history, sociology, classics, cultural studies, Near Eastern studies, or other disciplines to form combined departments. In some institutions, this is done for ease of administration, but some people view archaeology as intellectually embedded in these disciplines as well.
In some colleges and universities, archaeology courses can be found in multiple departments. A small percentage of colleges and universities in North America, and many colleges and universities elsewhere in the world, have stand-alone departments of archaeology. These departments sometimes also include courses in biological anthropology. However, in some institutions that have archaeological laboratories, use sophisticated technology, and explicitly consider the scientific method, archaeology is considered part of a science education. Other institutions situate archaeology and anthropology within the humanities. This particularly suits those archaeologists who view their role as being one primarily of storytelling, often drawing parallels with literature, visual arts, theater, and other kinds of performance. To meet increased demand for field and laboratory workers since the late s, some colleges in the United States and Canada have developed two-year archaeology programs intended for entry-level employment in the heritage industry.
Most pure scholarly research in archaeology is undertaken by those affiliated with universities, including professors who have usually received money from a funding agency, such as the National Endowment for the Humanities NEH or the National Science Foundation NSF in the United States, or the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council SSHRC in Canada. Make people aware of the value of heritage 2. Enact legislation to protect heritage 3. Document heritage sites and objects 4. Assess the significance of heritage sites and objects 5. Conserve or preserve heritage sites and objects 6. Interpret heritage 7. As outlined in Table 1. Archaeology is most prominent in the areas of documenting and assessing heritage sites, and archaeologists who perform these functions are generally considered to be working in the field of commercial archaeology or cultural resource management CRM , which is described more fully in Chapter 3. Although archaeologists have been active in the other areas of the heritage industry, historically they have tended to be secondary to Indigenous advocacy groups, lawmakers, educators, and tourism professionals.
In the early twenty-first century, however, archaeologists have been increasing their role in these other areas. They often lobby politicians to protect heritage sites and objects through legislation and other protective measures, and they have become increasingly active in the presentation of heritage to the public. Heritage tourism or archaeotourism, which has become a multibillion-dollar business, is one aspect of heritage presentation that has created considerable opportunities for archaeologists. For example, the Valley of the Kings in Egypt receives close to 2 million visitors annually; several Maya sites in Central America are major tourist destinations; and despite its remote location and very high altitude, several hundred thousand people visit Machu Picchu each year.
Heritage sites throughout North America, Europe, and elsewhere present many opportunities for archaeological research and interpretation. Part of a complex of more than temples built from the ninth through the twelfth centuries AD. After centuries of neglect, Angkor has been designated a World Heritage Site, become embedded in popular culture through movies and video games with an archaeological theme, and become a popular archaeotourism destination in Asia. PHOTO: Alexa Love. UN World Heritage status, have created great opportunities for archaeology. These sites include Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump and Mesa Verde, which are discussed more fully in Chapter 3. Governments that control heritage sites that are tourist destinations often support archaeological research to enhance the experience for visitors. Archaeologists often get involved in the authentic presentation of heritage, another aspect of heritage tourism.
Many are active in creating and maintaining authenticity at the hundreds, and perhaps thousands, of living museums that now dot the globe. Examples include the reconstruction of eighteenth-century Colonial Williamsburg in the United States, which reportedly has about 1 million visitors each year, and the very popular Jorvik Viking Centre in Great Britain, where smells have been recreated to increase authenticity. Archaeologists are also interested in the lack of authenticity in many living museums. Among other things, they often level criticism against sanitized versions of the past, including inadequate representations of poverty, racism, prostitution, alcoholism, and drug use. These Neolithic-style houses are located close to Stonehenge in the UK. They are based on archaeological excavations at a village site close to Stonehenge when it was built and used near the end of the Neolithic period c.
Archaeologists are often involved in constructing and critiquing reconstructions of the physical past such as this and other living museums and archaeological theme parks to ensure authenticity. PHOTO: Bob Muckle. First, the link between archaeological sites and national identity is not difficult to observe. Archaeological sites often symbolize their countries. As already mentioned, the Parthenon and surrounding buildings of the Acropolis are firmly tied to Greek identity, and Machu Picchu has come to represent Peru. Mayan sites often symbolize Mexico; Stonehenge represents Great Britain; and the pyramids are an emblem of ancient Egypt. Sites of the ancient Maya, for example, are often tied with national identity in Mexico, even though Mayans constitute a minor percentage of the contemporary population; and a recent Honduran presidential inauguration took place at the Mayan site of Copan.
Other examples of well-known heritage sites that are used to create a sense of national identity include the sites of Angkor and Great Zimbabwe. Angkor is best known for its complex of more than one hundred temples, built between the ninth and twelfth centuries AD. Some scholars believe the complex to be among the greatest architectural achievements of humankind. Following centuries of neglect and looting, Cambodia began to rebuild Angkor in the s, after a civil war. The country of Zimbabwe takes its name from the site of Great Zimbabwe.
When Europeans first started inhabiting the African country once known as Rhodesia, they dismissed the notion that the stone ruins they found there were the remains of a large settlement constructed by the ancestors of the contemporary Indigenous people. During the s, however, archaeologists became convinced otherwise, and one of the largest sites was given the name Great Zimbabwe, which is a word taken from the language of one of the local Indigenous groups. The site had such significance in building a sense of identity among the peoples of the region that when Rhodesia gained independence in , the country was renamed Zimbabwe. It is now believed that the site was built between the fifth and fifteenth century AD, and estimates of the prehistoric population range as high as 30, On occasion, using archaeology to create a sense of national identity can have devastating effects, such as when territorial expansion is justified on the basis of archaeological evidence.
In the years leading up to World War II, for example, Nazis used archaeological research by German archaeologists in neighboring areas, including Poland, to make claims that those lands rightfully belonged to Germany, since artifacts recovered there appeared to have had a Germanic origin. In some cases, evidence of swastika-like designs was taken to signify German origin, disregarding the fact that the symbol itself probably originated in India. The rationale behind the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in the late twentieth century provides another example. A sense of national identity can also be created and maintained by the way archaeological research is portrayed. Some popular American magazines, for example, have been criticized for the way they use archaeology to foster American values and ideology.
A comprehensive examination of articles focusing on archaeology in National Geographic, for example, shows that the selective slant of the reporting and the choice of images used to accompany the articles validates the American value of rugged individualism and legitimizes American expansionism. In many areas of the world, for example, legislation protecting archaeological sites has been put into place or strengthened following an increase in popular support for Indigenous claims to rights and territories. Archaeological research, undertaken by both Indigenous groups and governments, to investigate legal claims to Aboriginal rights and territories can be viewed as being political, since such claims often pit one nation against another e.
This view is particularly common in Canada, where dozens of First Nations as Indigenous groups are called are negotiating treaties for the first time, and where court cases brought by First Nations against governments are common, with archaeology being used to support both sides. Protection of archaeological sites can also be considered political at the international level. As we will see in more detail in Chapter 3, many international treaties, conventions, and laws under the umbrella of the United Nations cover the protection of heritage sites. It is not mandatory that individual countries agree to abide by the agreements, but pressure to abide from other member countries gives them the appearance of being political. Finally, archaeologists are concerned about the political destruction of heritage sites and objects. Despite international laws and agreements see Chapter 3 , many significant heritage objects and sites are destroyed from the direct actions of political regimes and during conflicts between groups or nations.
The destruction generally falls within the categories of targeted destruction, collateral damage, and subsistence looting. Since heritage sites are often used as symbols of identity, they have frequently been targeted for destruction by political regimes new to an area, in a sort of cleansing of previous regimes and ideologies. Examples include multiple attempts at damaging the Acropolis in Greece over the past few millennia, the leveling of the ancient Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan under present-day Mexico City by the invading Spaniards in the sixteenth century, and the deliberate destruction of thousands of important artifacts and at least one United Nations—designated World Heritage Site by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan during its reign in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century.
Although not generally thought to be one of the primary areas in which the political context of archaeology is considered, the use of archaeologists in espionage is well known. For example, the American Sylvanus Morley reportedly used his cover as an archaeologist to search for evidence of German submarines along the coast of Central America during World War I. Harvard archaeologist Samuel Lothrop maintained his cover to spy and coordinate intelligence activity for the United States during World War I and II. Archaeologists seeking to increase the social relevance of the discipline often become involved in social movements, bringing with them the data, methods, and theory of archaeology.
Conversely, the impact of social movements often challenges mainstream thinking in archaeology and leads to alternative interpretations of the past. Three social movements that have strong links to archaeology are feminism, Indigenous empowerment, and the environmental movement. The relationship between archaeology and feminism took serious hold in the s and continues to be an integral force in the evolution of both fields. Feminist thought has challenged the basic assumptions about gender roles in the past, such as the perception that men were the dominant tool makers, artists, food providers, and leaders. Feminism has also been integral in significantly increasing the proportion of women in all levels of the profession, from part-time field-worker to university professor.
Archaeology has benefited the feminist movement when archaeologists have debunked unsubstantiated claims of male superiority in past societies and focused increasing amounts of research on topics which hitherto received no or little attention, such as child rearing, plant gathering, and other tasks often associated with women. Indigenous empowerment and archaeology also have a very close relationship. As Indigenous groups around the world seek to empower themselves and lessen domination by colonial governments, they often include evidence from archaeological research to support their claims to territory and rights.
This has created much employment for archaeologists, to the degree that many are considered to be part of the Indian industry. Although less prominent than either feminism or Indigenous empowerment, the relationship between the environmental movement and archaeology is also strong, focusing on environmental sustainability and conservation. Significant contributions made by archaeologists include providing data on previous human use of the environment. Archaeologists are able to provide examples of the negative impacts of some subsistence and economic activities, which may ultimately lead to the abandonment of regions and collapse of civilizations.
For example, the archaeological record shows that irrigation may lead to increasingly saline soils, rendering them useless for farming. This includes many forms of media and entertainment, involving both the results of archaeological research and depictions of archaeologists at work. Examples of archaeology in popular culture can be found in novels, movies, television, advertising, games, and toys. Examples include the tendency to emphasize archaeology as a treasure hunt in print and visual media, a common European or North American bias in nonfiction books about archaeology such as overemphasizing heritage sites that are likely to be of most interest to European and North American readers , a common male bias focusing on male archaeologists and the male activities they discover , and an almost total neglect of the reasons behind archaeology.
Archaeologists have become increasingly concerned about the depiction of their discipline in popular culture for two principal reasons. First, if the popular perception is that archaeology is a frivolous activity, then government funding may be reduced. Ultimately, governments pay directly for most of the pure research done by archaeologists and pay most of the costs associated with the teaching of archaeology at colleges and universities. The feeling is that as demands for government funds increase, archaeology may be subject to cuts because of its perceived lack of importance. The second reason archaeologists are concerned about the depiction of archaeology in popular culture is the fact that the media increasingly determines the kinds of pure FIGURE 1.
Located on an island belonging to Ireland, Skellig Michael is a World Heritage Site known mostly for its evidence of early Christian monasteries during the Medieval period, beginning about 1, years ago. In more recent times this site has served as a set for movies and other programs, including three episodes in the Star Wars series: The Force Awakens , The Last Jedi , and The Rise of Skywalker The media has a long history of funding archaeological projects, the results of which then appear in those media magazines or television documentaries e. Print and television media are becoming increasingly involved in archaeological projects.
Archaeologists are concerned about this primarily because the type of research conducted may be based on what readers and viewers might find interesting, rather than on what might contribute significantly to our understanding of human behavior, past and present. Coca-Cola, for example, produced an ad that replaced the columns of the Parthenon with Coca-Cola bottles, causing outrage among many Greeks, some of whom felt that they were being humiliated on an international scale. At Machu Picchu, the filming of a beer commercial caused damage to some architectural ruins. A crane used in filming damaged a massive carved stone block known as the Intihuatana, which is presumed to have importance in Inka mythology.
As BOX 1. Popular culture both promotes and uses stereotypes of archaeology and the prehistoric past. The way ancient times are portrayed is almost always ridiculous. Similarly, archaeologists in popular culture are almost always portrayed as treasure hunters, which they are not. It has been said that archaeology is the most popular second choice for a career. If we take them at their word, this is true for celebrities as well as regular folk. It may be that archaeology is so firmly embedded in popular culture because of the stereotypical image of archaeologists — adventurous, smart, good-looking, and fit. The guru of research into archaeology as popular culture is Cornelius Holtorf. In Archaeology Is a Brand!
The Meaning of Archaeology in Contemporary Popular Culture , he identifies key themes in the portrayal of archaeologists in popular culture: as an adventurer, a detective, making profound revelations, and taking care of ancient sites and finds. This may be more important for archaeology than other disciplines. In surveys asking how people learn about archaeology, the overwhelming majority of responses are invariably linked with popular culture sources, especially television. Also, as traditional sources for funding archaeological research become reduced and increasingly competitive, television and other media are increasingly picking up the slack, which leads to decisions about what gets funded lying in the hands of those in media and entertainment rather than science.
Rationalizing Archaeology Historically, archaeology has been justified on the basis that it is intrinsically interesting; it provides information about the past so we can learn from our mistakes; and all knowledge is good. While these are valid rationalizations and worked well for much of the late nineteenth and twentieth century, for most people in the early twenty-first century, they are not good enough reasons to justify the billions of dollars spent each year on archaeological work, including maintaining the discipline in colleges and universities. To supply context for current global events, archaeology provides a database of more than 2 million years of human events, including instances of warfare, overpopulation, famine, and responses to environmental disasters. In addition, archaeology provides methods of classification and comparison to make this data meaningful, and it has a variety of conceptual frameworks that can be used to explain events.
For example, although there is no consensus among archaeologists, many believe the archaeological record shows that warfare occurs primarily in times of resource shortages. The framework archaeology has developed for collecting and interpreting data is most obviously applied in the area of documenting heritage. Archaeological techniques have found other applications as well, such as forensics. Archaeologists are often employed in forensic work, including recovering data from fires in buildings, plane crash sites, and crime scenes. Techniques developed in archaeology have further transferred well into studies of modern material culture and have proved beneficial in understanding the effectiveness of recycling and trash disposal programs. Some of these are described in Chapters 3 and Archaeologists are called upon frequently to evaluate data and ideas. On a very practical level, this includes examining claims of Indigenous groups to their alleged traditional territory.
Archaeologists evaluate these claims based on many variables, including the evidence itself and how it was collected. At a higher, more theoretical level, archaeologists get involved in evaluating ideas put forward by a wide range of groups and individuals, including academics, about the human past. Archaeologists are often able to show that popular ideas have little basis in fact see Chapter These assessments are fundamentally important to help determine whether a site will be destroyed without proper excavation, excavated before destruction, or preserved. Usually only sites determined to be highly significant are protected.
Archaeology has considerable economic value. Much of it is directly associated with the heritage industry, including archaeological research, education, and presentation. With more than 10, people making careers in the North American heritage industry alone, its economic impact is real. In countries such as Mexico, Peru, and Egypt, where visits to archaeological sites are very popular, archaeology has become a vital part of the tourism economy. Some value is given to the role archaeology often plays in support of other disciplines, in both the social and natural sciences. Archaeologists provide material evidence BOX 1. The US government has been consulting with archaeologists since the s on how to best mark proposed storage locations for nuclear waste. After all, who better to ask what kind of system is likely to work for 10, or more years than archaeologists?
Based on their knowledge of the past, archaeologists have been able to make several important suggestions. Each alone is unlikely to be able to be interpreted properly thousands of years from now, but a combination of the three systems may. Metal or other materials with perceived value will likely be looted. The monoliths should be granite or basalt, and be at least twice human height. These markers should be ceramic, shaped in a disc or lenticular form with a 12 centimeter diameter, and colored. One of the biggest problems remaining includes how to mark the site so that people of the future will be able to understand the warnings. While archaeologists can be reasonably certain that monoliths and ceramic markers will withstand thousands of years of weathering and probably not be looted, establishing how to convey the information about the contents of the site and warnings is difficult.
Language and symbols used today may be interpretable in a thousand years, but likely not in 10, years. For example, archaeology is often used to validate claims of people with no history of written records. Another example is that archaeology adds to our understanding of the more recent past by supplementing what can be learned through written records and oral history alone. Through field and laboratory studies, archaeologists study sediments as well as plant and animal remains, which are of interest to physical geographers, geologists, paleontologists, botanists, and palynologists. In this realm, archaeologists contribute to an understanding of the natural world, including the formation and alteration of landscapes, and studies of biological evolution and diversity. As a final rationale, archaeologists bring awareness and offer solutions to some important problems associated with living in the twenty-first century. For example, archaeologists have made recommendations to the US government for marking deposits of nuclear waste, based on their knowledge of i the kind of materials likely to survive the impacts of nature or looters, ii the changes that are likely to occur in the landscape over time, and iii the problems that arise when the meanings of symbols change or are lost over time, which is common.
Other examples include contributions that archaeologists make in debunking popular assumptions about contemporary refuse-discard and recycling programs, and in pointing out the potential problems associated with the ever-increasing amount of space junk in orbit around the earth. Basic Concepts in Archaeology Contemporary archaeology rests upon many concepts. The most fundamental of these are culture, holism, deep time, evolution, reasoning by analogy, and using multiple frameworks. Culture is a concept common to many disciplines in the social sciences. There are many ways to define culture, but one that works well for archaeology is that culture is the learned and shared things that people have, do, and think.
There is no minimum number of things that must be shared or number of people sharing to constitute a culture. The things that people have include material objects that are part of the society. In the contemporary world, these include but are certainly not limited to such things as roads, houses, hospitals, churches, colleges, tools, and jewelry. The things that people do include those practices commonly called customs, and involve how people interact with each other, how many hours a day they work, marriage and child-rearing practices, and manners.
The things that people think include those commonly linked under ideology, such as beliefs, religion, values, and morals. One way they can be distinguished is to think of the society as the people themselves and culture as those things that are learned and shared by the members of the society. The reason why culture is a fundamental concept in archaeology is that for most archaeologists their objectives include reconstructing past culture. The principal spheres of culture are commonly recognized as ecological, social, and ideological. The ecological sphere includes such things as settlement patterns, subsistence strategies, and diet see Chapter 8 , as well as technology see Chapter 6. The social and ideological spheres include matters of inequality, identity, organization, art, ritual, and religion see Chapter 9. In archaeology, holism refers to the notion that all components of culture are linked: an understanding of past culture depends on an investigation of multiple components of that culture, and a change in one component inevitably leads to changes in other components.
Archaeologists recognize, for example, that understanding the origins of art, ritual, and agriculture depends on an investigation of the earlier technologies, economies, social and political strategies, and belief systems of the people in the region. In the physical or natural sciences, the phrase deep time is generally used to convey the vast billions of years of history of the earth and the universe. Also known as deep antiquity in archaeology, deep time is used to convey the long history of humans. The outline of deep time, beginning with the origins of the universe but focusing on the time since humans have been leaving evidence of culture, is included in Chapter 7. The concept of evolution, both biological and cultural, is central to archaeology. Archaeologists understand that the material evidence left behind by humans extends back in time beyond the existence of Homo sapiens. Archaeologists also understand that plants and animals used by humans in the past have evolved, and evidence of this can not only be seen in archaeological sites, but it can also be used to make interpretations about such things as whether the plant or animal was wild or domestic.
Archaeologists further understand that cultures are continually changing. The rate of change is not constant, and all components of a culture do not change simultaneously, but change in all aspects of the ecological, social, and ideological spheres is continuous. Reasoning by analogy is one of the ways in which archaeological interpretations are made. Essentially, analogy is a form of reasoning based on the notion that if two things are the same in some respects, they may be the same in other respects as well. Because archaeologists usually deal with the distant past for which no written records or live witnesses exist, they sometimes rely on analogy to interpret their finds. The analogy is based on the similarity of the clay-shaped bowl with modern bowls made from clay the things they have in common. Since modern bowls are used to contain things, then the 7,year-old bowl was probably used to contain something as well. Archaeologists recognize some problems with analogy.
They are especially aware that the older the things are that they are trying to interpret, the less confidence they can have in their analogies. The two major kinds of analogies archaeologists use are based on ethnographic research and experiments. Ethnographic analogy occurs when archaeologists use similarities with contemporary people, or with people whose culture has been documented in an ethnography, to make their interpretations. When archaeologists make observations on contemporary people themselves to provide a source for comparison, it is known as ethnoarchaeology. Many archaeologists do experiments to provide a source of comparison e. There are many frameworks for discovery and interpretation in archaeology. There is no single right way to do archaeology. Login to YUMPU News Login to YUMPU Publishing. TRY ADFREE Self publishing Discover products News Publishing. Share Embed Flag. SHOW LESS. ePAPER READ DOWNLOAD ePAPER. TAGS archaeology theories methods download renfrew bahn epub essentials register edition.
Create successful ePaper yourself Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software. START NOW. Click Button "DOWNLOAD" Or "READ ONLINE" 2. Sign Up To Acces "Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice Third Edition " 3. Choose the book you like when you register 4. You can also cancel your membership if you are bored 5. Enjoy and Happy Reading Book Description The concise version of the bestselling introduction to archaeology, updated and in full colorArchaeology Essentials, already the most authoritative and accessible introduction on the market, has been updated with new discoveries, new technological innovations, revised pedagogical features, and improved illustrations. The only truly global archaeology textbook available in full color, the text also provides guidance for aspiring archaeologists in the form of compelling interviews with a worldwide selection of practicing archaeologists.
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Now in its third edition, Introducing Archaeology continues to be a thoughtful and engaging textbook for introductory-le. English Pages [] Year DOWNLOAD FILE. The Third Edition of this highly successful introduction to the archaeology of Mesoamerica includes full coverage of the. Python Essential Reference, 3rd Edition, is a comprehensive reference to the Python programming language. The focus of t. MUCKLE and STACEY L. The use of any part of this publication reproduced, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or stored in a retrieval system, without prior written consent of the publisher — or in the case of photocopying, a license from Access Copyright, the Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency — is an infringement of the copyright law. Muckle and Stacey L. Names: Muckle, Robert James, author.
Camp, Stacey Lynn, author. Description: Third edition. Includes bibliographical references and index. LCGFT: Textbooks. Classification: LCC CC M83 DDC Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders; in the event of an error or omission, please notify the publisher. University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council, an agency of the Government of Ontario. It is deliberately concise, offering the option of combining it with a package of readings or a case study. The concise nature of this text also makes it suitable to be used as one of multiple books in introductory courses that combine methods with world prehistory, archaeology with biological anthropology, or all four branches of anthropology together archaeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistics.
But the coverage is broad enough that some instructors may wish to use it as the sole required reading for a course. The development of the book has been guided by the principles of curriculum reform articulated by the Society for American Archaeology SAA. To bring the teaching of archaeology more into line with the reality of archaeology in the world today, the SAA promotes seven principles for curriculum reform at all levels of college and university education, which revolve around making students explicitly aware of i the nonrenewable nature of the archaeological record, ii the fact that many other groups besides archaeologists have vested interests in the archaeological record, iii the socially relevant contributions of archaeology in the present and future, iv the ethical principles that guide archaeologists, v the importance for archaeologists to be effective communicators, vi the basic cognitive and methodological skills used by archaeologists, and vii real-world problem solving by archaeologists.
The nonrenewable nature of the archaeological record is emphasized through such topics as the rise of cultural resource management, heritage legislation, and the destruction of sites through looting and warfare. Vested interests in the archaeological record by non-archaeologists are covered by examining Indigenous archaeology and the many parts of the heritage industry, including tourism. Making archaeology socially relevant is included in many areas, such as studies of contemporary garbage. Archaeological ethics are made explicit, as is the value of communication, with the sharing of information built into research designs.
Besides being guided by the SAA principles of curriculum reform, many characteristics of this book set it apart from competitors. It situates archaeology in the contemporary world much more than others do. This includes contextualizing archaeology in academia, industry, global social movements, politics, and popular culture. It places more emphasis on the management of heritage resources and includes sections on legislation and international agreements concerning archaeology. Unlike most textbooks for courses focusing on methods, this book includes a brief section outlining world prehistory and ancient civilizations, providing a frame of reference for students. Most books avoid the disagreements, ambiguities, and gray areas within the discipline, instead presenting information as if there was consensus among archaeologists.
This book explicitly identifies these areas, ranging from differences in definitions of archaeology to explanations of the collapse of civilizations. Introducing Archaeology, third edition, is accompanied by a website for students, including learning objectives, chapter summaries, study questions, exhibits weblinks, and a glossary. To access these materials, visit www. Comments and suggestions for future editions from instructors are welcome and can be directed to Dr. This text provides a broad introduction to archaeology as it is practiced in the twenty-first century.
It focuses on the practical aspects of research, such as how projects are designed, what methods are used in field and laboratory work, and how archaeologists make interpretations. It is also about how archaeology is situated in the contemporary world outside colleges and universities, such as in industry, and how it is related to global social movements, politics, popular culture, and real-world problem solving. One of the purposes of an introductory course is to familiarize students with vocabulary common to the subject. Even though this text is relatively short, you will undoubtedly come across many words you have never seen before or see other words being used in a new way. Such words are included in the Glossary and are identified in bold type the first time they appear in the text.
This third edition has been built on the shoulders of the first two, and we appreciate all the help in the development of those two editions. We are especially appreciative of the support of Anne Brackenbury, former executive editor at the University of Toronto Press UTP , who guided the first two editions from initial concept to books in hand, and also was the impetus and guiding hand through the accepted proposal stage of this third edition. We further acknowledge the valuable contributions and efficiencies of UTP managing editor Janice Evans and editorial assistant Kiley Venables. as well as Beth McAuley and her team at The Editing Company for the excellent copyedit. Many others, of course, have been instrumental in the creation of this edition. We are awestruck by the several drawings done for this edition by Katherine Cook. Katherine is an outstanding archaeologist and professor who had been making significant contributions in archaeology, including in the areas of public, digital, and mortuary archaeology, and who also happens to draw on the side.
All those colleagues, friends, and former students who have provided photographs for this edition are gratefully acknowledged, as are the people identified in the images for allowing their use. We are committed to keeping the book as affordable as possible for students, and the free use of images contributed by these individuals goes a long way to reducing the costs. These people, to which we express sincere gratitude, include Cruz Botello, Jane Baxter, Jeff Burnett, Gillian Crowther, Leah Evans-Janke, Allison Fashing, Mark Galvani, Chad Hill, Ian Hodder, Stacy Kozakavich, Morag Kersel, Shannon Dawdy, Jason De León, Tiana Lewis, Alexa Love, Serena Love, Gabe Moshenska, Autumn Painter, Nadine Ryan, Emma Scott, Amanda Vick, and Larry Zimmerman. Stacey greatly appreciates the support of her colleagues at Michigan State University, who have provided support and encouragement with this project. Stacey also appreciates students in her Introduction to Archaeology course at Michigan State, who keep her on her toes and continue to make her think about the contemporary relevance of archaeology.
She appreciates her hardworking Campus Archaeology staff, who have provided some content for this book. Stacey greatly appreciates her husband, Ben, and children, Lana and Tyson, who were patient and understanding as she finished her portion of this textbook. Her dog, Mimsy, also kept her company during late-night writing sessions. She is thankful for the mentors who have crossed her path as an archaeologist and academic; she is forever grateful to the many people who have given her advice and guidance every step of the way — this includes Bob Muckle, who has been an absolute pleasure to work with. Finally, her parents, Sandra Oviedo and Richard Oviedo, have always been supportive of all the work she has done across the world. Bob is further grateful for the excellent working environment provided by Capilano University, and is especially indebted to his long-time colleagues in the Department of Anthropology, Maureen Bracewell and Gillian Crowther, who while not archaeologists themselves are very supportive of all his research and writing projects and listen intently while he shares his latest discoveries and thoughts about archaeology.
Bob also appreciates the support of family in the writing of this book, especially his wife Victoria. Several years ago he asked her to stop him if he ever agreed to write another book. Stacey Camp fell in love with archaeology when she was an undergraduate at Occidental College, a small liberal arts college in Los Angeles. While she was an undergraduate, she attended an archaeological field school in Ireland with Dr. Chuck E. Orser, Jr. that showed her how archaeology connects the people living in the present to the past. She is currently an associate professor of anthropology and director of the Campus Archaeology Program at Michigan State University. Prior to working at Michigan State University, she oversaw one of three archaeological repositories in the state of Idaho at the University of Idaho. Her book, The Archaeology of Citizenship , University Press of Florida , explores how immigrants living in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century United States envisioned citizenship and national belonging.
She has conducted archaeological and ethnographic research in the Midwest and Western United States, Ireland, and China. Robert Bob Muckle began his studies at a community college, with no idea that he would even take an archaeology class, let alone have a career in it. He simply enrolled in an archaeology class at community college because it fit his schedule, was hooked by that introductory class, and subsequently completed his undergraduate and graduate degrees in archaeology at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada. He has experience in consulting archaeology, Indigenous archaeology, and academic archaeology, including fieldwork in Canada, Egypt, and the United States. He is a professor in the Department of Anthropology at Capilano University in North Vancouver, British Columbia, where he teaches several courses and has an active research program involving field and laboratory work. Other books he has authored include Through the Lens of Anthropology: An Introduction to Human Evolution and Culture, second edition with Laura Gonzalez, , and Indigenous Peoples of North America , both with University of Toronto Press.
He is excited about all things archaeological, with major interests revolving around teaching archaeology, archaeology in North America, the social and political uses of archaeology, and archaeology of the contemporary world. PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION The principal objective of this book is to introduce students to the nature and scope of archaeology, especially as it is practiced in North America during the twenty-first century. The substance and style of this book has been guided by the understanding that the content should be substantive enough that students intending on majoring in archaeology and perhaps making a career of it will leave the course for which the book is the text having learned enough to serve them well in future archaeology courses, and keep their interest in archaeology alive.
It is also recognized the many, perhaps most, of the students taking the course for which this book is the text, are taking the course as an elective and will take few, if any, other archaeology courses. The choice of content and style is for these students as well. The objective for these students is to create material that is interesting and important, so that they have a lifelong appreciation of what it is that archaeologists do, how they do it, and why they do it. The first two editions of this book were authored solely by Robert Muckle. The most important change for this edition is the addition of Dr.
Stacey Camp as co-author. She brings more balance to this edition, bringing different experiences, perspectives, and areas of expertise. The changes for this third edition are substantive and many. Regarding the art program, most of the images in this edition are now in color, approximately one-third of the images from the second edition have been replaced, and there are now several ink drawings created for this book. The book has fewer tables than the second edition but more boxes. Each of the eleven chapters now has two boxes. New sections in this edition include discussions of decolonization in archaeology, digital archaeology, public archaeology, and interpreting the past in the future, which speculates on how archaeologists and others will understand life in the early twenty- first century.
Sections on activist archaeology and archaeology of contemporary times have been expanded. Significant revisions have been made to the section on the current state of archaeology, and the Glossary has been expanded. Minor revisions and updates have been made throughout each chapter, which are reflected in the substantial changes in the bibliography which now has a much higher proportion of references by women and Indigenous scholars than previous editions. Further, this third edition addresses some of the more problematic current issues such as sexual harassment and abuse, lack of diversity in the profession, and inclusion. The purpose of this prologue is to let students know that archaeology is not what it may seem. For non-archaeologists, perceptions of what archaeology is, who archaeologists are, and how they do their work are based primarily on unrealistic stereotypes perpetuated by media and popular culture.
Stories in mainstream media suggesting that archaeologists have discovered something lost, mysterious, or with enormous monetary value appear almost daily.
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WebNov 1, · DOWNLOAD NOW: Download Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Third Edition) The link above will be available after you WebIntroducing Archaeology [Third Edition] , Now in its third edition, Introducing Archaeology continues to be a thoughtful and engaging textbook WebView PDF. Download this big ebook and read the Archaeology Essentials Theories Methods And Practice Fourth Edition ebook. You can't find this ebook anywhere online. WebNov 25, · DOWNLOAD NOW: Download Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Third Edition) The link above will be available after you WebApr 8, · pdf download Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Third Edition) read Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice (Third WebThe third edition of Archaeology Essentials is destined to become a classic of the field. color illustrations Read more. Archaeology Essentials 3Rd Edition PDF Book ... read more
PHOTO: Gillian Crowther. fully resolved today. Bob also appreciates the support of family in the writing of this book, especially his wife Victoria. Natural formation processes are natural events that govern both the burial and the survival of the archaeological record. This includes the identification, collection, analysis, interpretation, and management of those remains. Clay daubing and adobe usually decay, but if a structure has been fired,. Egypt and the Near East also held a fascination for the American lawyer and diplomat John Lloyd Stephens, but it was in the New World that he was to make his name.
Unlike other academic disciplines that are associated with well-defined subject matter, the essential craft of archaeology is in manufacturing knowledge and interpreting the past. Register a free. The technical methods of archaeological science are the most obvious, from radiocarbon dating to studies of food residues in pots. Cultural Formation Processes — How People Have Affected What Survives In The Archaeological
Archaeology essentials 3rd edition pdf download. A relatively minor ruler in the overall history of ancient Egypt, in his death, King Tut has likely become one of the most popular people who has ever lived. She almost half a century at many sites in subsequently applied this approach East Africa, carrying out meticulous between Neanderthals and Homo in the Near East at two of the most excavations, most notably at Olduvai sapiens. what is left and what is gone for ever.
